Industrial Revolution
Background
It is said that the Industrial Revolution was the most profound revolution in human history, as it had a major impact on people's daily lives. The term "Industrial Revolution" is a shorthand catchphrase to describe a historical period beginning in 18th-century Britain, where the pace of change seemed to accelerate.
This spurt in the process of technological innovation gave birth to an array of new devices and machines. It also includes more subtle practical improvements in various areas affecting labor, productivity and resource use.
The word "technology" (derived from the Greek word techne, meaning art or craft) encompasses both of these dimensions of innovation.
The technological revolution, and the sense of ever-accelerating change, began long before the 18th century and continues to this day.
Perhaps what was most unique about the Industrial Revolution was the integration of technology with industry.
Key inventions and innovations have shaped virtually every existing field of human activity along industrial lines, as well as created many new industries. Following are some important examples of forces driving change.
Agriculture
Western European farming methods were gradually improving over the centuries. Several factors combined to produce a substantial increase in agricultural production in 18th-century Britain.
These included new types of tools, such as the seed drill developed by Jethro Tull around 1701. Advances were also made in crop rotation and land use, soil health, development of new crop varieties, and animal husbandry.
The result was a steady increase in production, able to feed a rapidly growing population with better nutrition.
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A combination of factors also led to a shift towards large-scale commercial farming, a trend that continued into the 19th century and beyond.
Poor farmers found it difficult to make ends meet through traditional subsistence farming. The enclosure movement, which converted common-use grazing land into private ownership, furthered this trend toward market-oriented agriculture.
Energy
Deforestation in England in the 16th century led to a shortage of wood for firewood and fuel. The country's transition to coal as a major energy source was more or less complete by the end of the 17th century.
Coal mining and distribution created some of the dynamics that led to Britain's industrialization. The coal-fired steam engine was in many ways the defining technology of the Industrial Revolution.
Steam power was first used to extract water from coal mines. For centuries, windmills have been used in the Netherlands for a roughly similar operation of draining low-lying floodplains.
Wind was, and is, a readily available and renewable energy source, but its irregularity was considered a drawback.
Water power was the more popular energy source for grinding grain and other forms of millwork in much of industrialized Europe.
However, by the last quarter of the 18th century, thanks to the work of Scottish engineer James Watt and his business partner Matthew Bolton, steam engines achieved a high level of efficiency and versatility in their design.
Textiles
Between 1750 and 1850 the production of textiles, particularly cotton, was fundamental to Britain's economic growth.
These are the years that historians usually use to bracket the Industrial Revolution. During this period, the organization of cotton production shifted from a small-scale cottage industry, in which rural families carried out spinning and weaving in their homes, to a large, mechanized, factory-based industry.
The boom in productivity began with a few technological devices, including the spinning genie, the spinning wheel, and the power loom.
First humans, then water and finally steam power were used to operate power looms, carding machines and other specialized equipment.
Another well-known innovation was the cotton gin, invented in the United States in 1793. This instrument encouraged an increase in the cultivation and export of cotton from the American slave states, a major British supplier.
Transportation
Along with the increased production of agricultural produce and manufactured goods came the need for more efficient means of transporting these products to market.
The first efforts towards this goal in Europe involved the construction of better dirt roads. Canals were dug in both Europe and North America to create sea passages between existing waterways.
Steam engines were recognized as useful in locomotion, leading to the emergence of the steamboat in the early 19th century.
High-pressure steam engines also powered railroad locomotives, which operated in Britain after 1825. Railways spread rapidly throughout Europe and North America, extending to Asia in the latter half of the 19th century.
Railroads became one of the world's leading industries as they expanded the frontiers of industrial society.
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